In this issue of Blood, Pabst et al report that granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) “priming” improves event-free and overall survival (EFS and OS) only in those adults less than 60 years old given escalated doses of cytarabine (ara-C) for treatment of newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia (AML).1
Efforts to improve the frequently unsatisfactory results after treatment of this disease typically entail other cytotoxins in combination with, or as replacements for, standard daunorubicin (or idarubicin) plus ara-C. Another approach emphasizes noncytotoxic drugs to sensitize (“prime”) AML blasts to standard therapy. Use of CXCR4 inhibitors to detach marrow blasts from their protective stroma is a recent example,2 but a much earlier example was G-CSF. Originally given before and/or during standard induction therapy to place more blasts into S-phase of the cell cycle where sensitivity to such therapy is thought greatest, G-CSF priming has had a checkered 20-year history.3 A particularly noteworthy study (HOVON-SAKK AML-29) whose authors include some of those from the current study randomized 730 adults less than 60 years old with newly diagnosed AML to receive or not receive G-CSF beginning 1 day before, and continuing during, chemotherapy: cycle 1 = idarubicin, + ara-C at 200 mg/m2 daily ×7, cycle 2 = amsacrine, + ara-C at 1g/m2 twice daily ×12.4 Although G-CSF generally reduced the risk of relapse, an improvement in EFS (hazard ratio [HR] 0.75, P = .01) and OS (HR 0.75, P = .02) occurred only in the 72% of patients with intermediate risk cytogenetics. Despite these results, G-CSF priming has not found widespread acceptance.
To Pabst et al's great credit a primary purpose of the current, and larger, study (HOVON-42) was to confirm the findings of AML-29, as well as to see if the OS benefit might be more widespread. HOVON-42 was initially conducted within the context of a randomization to either conventional dose ara-C, given as in AML-29, or escalated dose ara-C: cycle 1 = 1g/m2 twice daily ×10, cycle 2 = 2g/m2 twice daily days 1, 2, 4, and 6. Within each of these groups patients were randomized to +/− G-CSF, given during each cycle's chemotherapy. Nine hundred seventeen patients were randomized to +/− G-CSF with 709 receiving conventional dose and 207 escalated dose ara-C. Despite striking similarities between the conventional-dose ara-C arms of AML-29 and HOVON-42, the latter could not reproduce the decrease in relapse risk seen generally in the G-CSF arm of the former, nor the improvement in EFS and OS observed in the intermediate-risk cytogenetic group when given G-CSF (HRs 0.95 and 1.01, respectively, in HOVON-42). There was, however, the above-noted improvement in EFS (HR 0.59, P = .003) and OS (HR 0.65, P = .012), due primarily to less risk of relapse, in the escalated dose ara-C group given G-CSF.
Pabst and colleagues explicitly seek explanations for the discrepant results, but find none specifically related to the 2 studies that appear plausible. They clearly recognize the possibility that the improved EFS and OS in patients given escalated dose ara-C + G-CSF in HOVON-42 will eventually prove to be a chance observation, even though they adjusted the above-noted P values to reflect the several tests of statistical significance they performed.
Therapeutic findings aside, Pabst et al's report is an important reminder of the limitations of even very well conducted randomized trials (phase 3) such as AML-29 and HOVON-42. There are several reasons why such trials may prove misleading. Most basically, as the authors imply, the results are statistics, not facts. Assume that among 100 new treatments for AML, 90 are truly not useful while 10 are truly useful; history suggests this is not unrealistic.5 Further assume a phase 3 trial formulated to have a 5% false positive rate (ie, P = .05) and a 20% false negative rate (ie, power = 80%). Eight of the 10 truly useful treatments will be called useful as will 4 of the truly not useful treatments. Hence, 33% (4/12) of the treatments called useful will be false positives. Of course, the false positive rate rises above 5% as the number of tests of statistical significance performed increases. In this connection, Tannock reported that subgroup analyses were done in 59% of 32 randomized trials published in the New England Journal of Medicine or the Journal of Clinical Oncology, with corrections for multiple testing done in only 13%.6 Under the circumstances, it is quite plausible that more than 50% of the treatments reported as advances are not.
Various biases also need to be considered. Publication bias is well known7 and has motivated the establishment of trial registries that include unpublished as well as published results. Although not an issue with the current article, funding source influences whether an experimental treatment will be concluded to be “treatment of choice” after a phase 3 trial. Thus, Als-Nielsen et al found that, after accounting for treatment effect, double-blinding, and other covariates, trials funded by for-profit organizations were 5.3-fold more likely to recommend the experimental treatment (95% confidence interval 2.0-14.4).8
A fundamental purpose of randomization is to achieve balance on unknown covariates. The latter's importance in AML is apparent given that accounting for known covariates (cytogenetics, FLT3, etc) results in an ability to predict long-term outcomes that is closer to a coin flip (area under receiver operating characteristic curve, AUC, = 0.5) than certainty (AUC = 1.0).9 Yet randomized trials of a given therapy are conducted sequentially and thus perforce differ with respect to these unknown covariates. Hence, the results of randomized trials of the same therapy may not be mutually consistent unless the treatment effect is quite large.
A recent paper was provocatively entitled “Why most published research findings are false.”10 Even without necessarily subscribing to this view, physicians' seeming reluctance to be influenced by results of even randomized trials is understandable, even if the reasons for this reluctance are often intuitive. An adage attributed to the late legendary college basketball coach John Wooden is, “Be quick, but do not hurry.” Perhaps, and depending on effect size, we should be quick to organize follow-up trials to confirm “positive” results of well-conducted trials such as that of Pabst et al, but circumspect in altering practice to reflect the results.
Conflict-of-interest disclosure: The author declares no competing financial interests. ■
