Myeloperoxidase (MPO) catalyzes a reaction between chloride and hydrogen peroxide to generate hypochlorous acid and other reactive compounds that have been linked to DNA damage. The MPO gene is expressed at high levels in normal myeloid precursors and in acute myeloid leukemias (AMLs) which are clonal derivatives of myeloid precursors that have lost the ability to differentiate into mature blood cells. Two MPO alleles differ at -463 G/A within a cluster of nuclear receptor binding sites in an Alu element. The -463 G creates a stronger SP1 binding site and retinoic acid (RA) response element (RARE) in the allele termed Sp. In this study, we investigate potential links between MPO genotype, MPO expression level, and myeloid leukemia. The SpSp MPO genotype is shown to correlate with increased MPO mRNA levels in primary myeloid leukemia cells. This higher-expressing SpSp genotype is further shown to be overrepresented in acute promyelocytic leukemia-M3 (APL-M3) and AML-M4, suggesting that higher levels of MPO are associated with an increased risk for this subset of leukemias.

THE MYELOPEROXIDASE (MPO) enzyme functions as an antimicrobial agent in neutrophils and monocytes by catalyzing the generation of hypochlorous acid and other reactive oxygen species.1,2 Expression of the MPO gene is restricted to the myeloid lineage and is highest in bone marrow precursors, peaking at the promyelocyte stage.3 MPO is also expressed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells,4 which represent clonal expansions of myeloid precursors which have lost the ability to differentiate into mature blood cells. Two MPO alleles termed Sp and N (formerly AML and MPO) differ at one known position (-463 G/A) in an upstream Alu sequence within a cluster of hormone response elements (AluHREs).5,6 The AluHRE consists of four hexamer half-sites, related to the consensus nuclear receptor binding site AGGTCA,7 oriented as direct repeats spaced by two, four, and two basepairs (bps) (DR-2-4-2). The first DR-2 element contains the G/A base difference, which in the Sp allele creates the core binding site for the SP1 transcription factor (GGCGGG) and a perfect match for a 10-bp consensus SP1 binding site (TGAGGCGGGT v TGAGGCAGGT). This DR-2/SP1 element increases transcription of a reporter gene by 25-fold in cellular transfection assays, whereas the corresponding DR-2 element from the N allele is a less effective transactivator.5 The highest transactivation is observed in the presence of retinoic acid (RA) and cotransfected RA receptors (RAR and RXR). This RA response is apparently indirect, since RAR-RXR heterodimers synthesized in vitro do not bind this site in vitro. However, the 3′ DR-2 element does bind RAR-RXR and is a functional RA response element (RARE) in transfection assays in which these elements are linked to a reporter gene,5 whereas the central DR-4 element binds TR-RXR and is a functional thyroid hormone response element.

In the previous study, we noted that the SpSp homozygous genotype was overrepresented in 18 AML cases.5 The study had been prompted by a prior report that position -463 was a G residue in most cases of AML but was uniformly A in the normal population, suggesting that -463 G was a somatic mutation linked to leukemia.8 Our analysis of normal blood donors indicated that the -463 G/A base difference was instead an allelic polymorphism and that the G-containing Sp allele was predominant in the population. Nevertheless, the homozygous SpSp genotype was present in a higher proportion in AML cases than in normal donors.5 This overrepresentation of the allele with the stronger SP1 site and RARE initially suggested a possible link between MPO expression levels and AML.

In the normal myeloid lineage in the bone marrow, MPO is expressed in a narrow developmental window around the promyelocyte stage, and expression is sharply curtailed as these progenitors differentiate toward granulocyte or monocyte lineages.3 Most studies of MPO expression have used AML cell lines induced to differentiate in vitro, with accompanying loss of MPO gene expression.9-16 Consistent with those findings, peripheral blood neutrophils and monocytes lack detectable MPO mRNA,13 although the MPO protein continues to be stored at high levels in cytoplasmic lysosomes.17 

The MPO gene encodes an 83-kD precursor polypeptide that is posttranslationally processed to yield 13.5-kD and 59-kD subunits.12,18 Two of each subunit are assembled with heme groups to produce the tetrameric enzyme. MPO catalyzes the reaction of chloride and hydrogen peroxide to yield hypochlorous acid (HOCl), a strong oxidant.1,2 In the presence of superoxide (O2−⋅), hypochlorous acid generates hydroxyl radicals,19 a highly reactive radical species. MPO also generates free chlorine (Cl2 ), which acts as a potent halogenating agent.20 MPO and its reactive by-products have been linked to DNA-strand breakage,21 generation of carcinogens,22,23 and inhibition of DNA repair.24 MPO has been linked to disease states mediated by later-stage myeloid cells, neutrophils, or monocytes/macrophages, including atherosclerosis,25 multiple sclerosis,26 and cystic fibrosis.27 These findings suggest that the antimicrobial functions of MPO are linked to inadvertent cytotoxic side effects, such as DNA damage, which could promote leukemogenesis.

AMLs are classified by the French-American-British (FAB) morphologic scheme as subtypes M0 through M6,28 approximating early to later stages of myeloid development, with M0 and M1 characterized as myeloblastic, M3 as promyelocytic, and M5 as monocytic leukemia. The highest level of MPO expression is seen in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL-M3) and can be up to 20 times higher than in M1 or M5 subtypes.4 This indicates that myeloid-specific transcription factors essential for MPO transcription are present at the highest levels at the promyelocyte stage. Because the AluHRE with the SP1 and RARE is a non–cell type-specific enhancer, this element is unlikely to affect transcription in the absence of stage-specific factors required for MPO transcription. This predicts that the SpSp genotype, if linked to AML, might be more strongly linked to subtypes around the promyelocyte stage, such as APL-M3, that have the essential transcription factor background.

APL-M3 is the most homogeneous of the AML subtypes: almost all cases have undergone the reciprocal translocation t(15; 17) that interrupts the RARα gene, fusing it to the PML gene that encodes a putative zinc-finger transcription factor.29,30 The PML-RAR fusion protein retains the DNA-binding and ligand-binding domains of RARα and most of the PML protein, and is thought to be a dominant-negative oncoprotein that interferes with the expression of genes involved in normal myeloid differentiation.29 Disruption of the normal RA response appears to be key to the blockage of APL cell maturation: Treatment with all-trans-RA induces APL cells to differentiate into mature granulocytes,31 and accordingly, treatment of APL patients with RA results in complete remission in most cases.32 As further evidence that RARα function is important for normal myeloid differentiation, disruption of the RARα gene by another translocation, t(11; 17)(q23;q21), also leads to APL.33 One event induced by RA treatment of APL cells is rapid shutdown of MPO transcription.34 This raises the question of whether the Alu-encoded RARE, which differs in the Sp and N alleles, might be involved in RA-mediated regulation of MPO expression in leukemic versus differentiating cells.

In the current study, we analyzed MPO genotype in 46 AML cases classified by subtype to determine if the SpSp genotype is most strongly associated with subtypes that express significant levels of MPO. The findings indicate that the SpSp genotype is overrepresented in high MPO-expressing subtypes APL-M3 and -M4. We further show that primary AML cells of the SpSp genotype contain higher steady-state levels of MPO mRNA than SpN or NN genotypes. Overrepresentation of the higher-expressing MPO genotype with APL-M3 and -M4 implies that high MPO levels increase the incidence of these leukemias.

Polymerase chain reaction for determination of MPO genotype of AML patients.Patients donated leukemia cells for research purposes with provision of informed consent and under the auspices of the Investigational Review Boards of the University of Pittsburg Medical Center and the University of Southern California Medical School. Cases were classified according to FAB criteria for morphology and histochemical staining.28 Most of the APL-M3 leukemias were also identified karyotypically by the t15; 17 translocation. Leukocytes were isolated from peripheral blood or bone marrow samples from AML patients by Ficoll-Hypaque (GIBCO-BRL, Gaithersburg, MD) density gradient centrifugation. DNA was isolated from the leukocytes as previously described.5 For determination of MPO genotype, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed with 200 ng genomic DNA and 0.5 μg of each primer in a 50-μL reaction volume containing 50 mmol/L KCl, 10 mmol/L Tris hydrochloride, pH 8.3, 1.5 mmol/L MgCl2 , 200 μmol/L nucleotides, and 2.5 U Taq polymerase (Pharmacia, Piscataway, NJ). Nested primers (GIBCO-BRL) were synthesized to amplify a region extending from -829 to position +310 relative to the transcription start site. The first primer set was 5′ CTTGGTCCTGCGCCCACAGTCCCC 3′ and 5′ TCCCACCTTGGGAACTGTTACCTG 3′, and the second set was 5′ GCTGCCCATTGGGTGGCTGTTGGA 3′ and 5′ AGAGGGCTGGGGCGTGGCCAGAAT 3′. The cycling conditions were 94°C for 6 minutes followed by 30 cycles at 94°C for 1 minute, 55°C for 2 minutes, and 72°C for 2 minutes. Five microliters of the first reaction was used in a second PCR with the second primer set, internal to the first set. The resultant 1,148-bp PCR product (−829 to +319) was electrophoresed in agarose gels, purified, and sequenced directly (Sequenase kit; Amersham, Arlington Heights, IL). Each DNA sample was analyzed at least twice. For statistical analysis, the χ2 test was performed, and P values less than .05 were considered significant.

Reverse transcriptase-PCR of MPO mRNA sequences from primary AML cells.Frozen leukocytes isolated from AML blood samples were placed in culture in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum, 2 mmol/L glutamine, and penicillin/streptomycin. After at least 2 days in culture, cells (approximately 105) were collected by centrifugation, and RNA was isolated by lysis in Trizol reagent (GIBCO-BRL). The RNA was used to make cDNA using reverse transcriptase (RT) and random hexamer primers (First strand synthesis kit; Pharmacia). PCR was performed with approximately 200 ng cDNA and 0.5 μg of each primer in a 50-μL reaction volume containing 50 mmol/L KCl, 10 mmol/L Tris hydrochloride, pH 8.3, 1.5 mmol/L MgCl2 , 200 mmol/L nucleotides, and 2.5 U Taq polymerase (Pharmacia). Nested primers (GIBCO) were synthesized to amplify a region extending from position +1 to +600 of the mRNA sequence in the first reaction and then from +30 to +583 in the second reaction. The first primer set was (1) 5′ AGCTGACAATATCAGGTGAGCTGTGG 3′ and (4) 5′ CAGTGACATTGAATGGCCT 3′. The second set was (2) 5′ TCCTTGGAAGCTGGATGACAGCAGCT 3′ and (3) 5′ TTCGCCACAGGGACCGCAGCTTCC 3′. Cycling conditions for the first set of primers were 94°C for 6 minutes followed by 10 cycles at 94°C for 1 minute, 55°C for 2 minutes, and 72°C for 2 minutes. Five microliters of the first PCR was used in a second PCR with the second, nested primer set for up to 25 cycles. In the second reaction, primer 3 was radiolabeled by polynucleotide kinase and γ 32P-ATP. The radiolabeled PCR product was electrophoresed in 5% polyacrylamide gels along with radiolabeled marker DNA fragments. The product of the second primer set was 553 bp if derived from mRNA and 1,067 bp if derived from genomic DNA. Relative cDNA concentrations for the various cDNA samples were determined using actin cDNA primers. To aid normalization between different PCR experiments, an internal cDNA standard prepared from NB4 cells was also included in all experiments. To ensure that the PCR was in the linear range of amplification, reactions were performed for 15, 20, and 25 cycles. Quantitation of relative amounts of radiolabeled PCR amplification products was performed with an Ambis radioisotope detector (Ambis, San Diego, CA).

Western blot analysis of MPO from AML cell extracts.AML cells in culture were collected and lysed in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) containing buffer. Equal amounts of protein were electrophoresed on SDS-polyacrylamide gels, transferred to nylon membrane, reacted with rabbit polyclonal antibodies against human MPO (Dako, Carpinteria, CA), and visualized using the ECL system (Amersham). Quantitation was made by densitometric scans of the photographic films.

SpSp MPO genotype is overrepresented in APL-M3 and -M4 subtypes.To establish the ratio of Sp and N alleles in the normal population, we analyzed 111 DNA samples including 20 known Hispanic-American and 20 known Caucasian-American donors. The MPO upstream region was PCR-amplified, and the DNA sequence of the PCR product was directly determined. The -463 position appears as G in SpSp homozygotes, A in NN homozygotes, or both A and G at half-intensity in SpN heterozygotes (Fig 1). The results indicated that 61% of the general population are SpSp homozygotes, 33% are SpN heterozygotes, and 6% are NN homozygotes (Fig 2A), a distribution fitting the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Hispanic and Caucasion ethnic-genetic subgroups were 60% to 63% SpSp, comparable to the overall population. Because of evidence of a higher incidence of APL in Hispanics,35 it was important to determine that the normal Hispanic population is not overrepresented by the SpSp genotype.

Fig. 1.

MPO genotypes determined by direct sequencing of PCR products. A DNA fragment including the -463 G/A base difference was amplified by PCR and directly sequenced using an internal primer. Positions of hexamers 1 and 2 (H1 and H2) are indicated in the sequence at left. The sequence of the opposite strand was determined using dideoxynucleotide C and T termination reactions as indicated at bottom. The SpSp homozygous genotype is identified by the G residue at -463 (arrow); the heterozygous SpN genotype has both G and A residues, and the homozygous NN genotype has only A.

Fig. 1.

MPO genotypes determined by direct sequencing of PCR products. A DNA fragment including the -463 G/A base difference was amplified by PCR and directly sequenced using an internal primer. Positions of hexamers 1 and 2 (H1 and H2) are indicated in the sequence at left. The sequence of the opposite strand was determined using dideoxynucleotide C and T termination reactions as indicated at bottom. The SpSp homozygous genotype is identified by the G residue at -463 (arrow); the heterozygous SpN genotype has both G and A residues, and the homozygous NN genotype has only A.

Close modal
Fig. 2.

Schematic representation of MPO genotypes in the normal population and in AML subtypes. (A) Relative percentage of SpSp, SpN, and NN genotypes in 111 normal donors. (B) Relative number of SpSp, SpN heterozygotes, or NN homozygotes in the various AML subtypes. Cases are from Table 1. Subtypes M0 through M6 approximate early to late stages of myeloid differentiation. The highest proportions of the SpSp genotype are seen in APL-M3 and -M4 subtypes, which have high MPO expression.

Fig. 2.

Schematic representation of MPO genotypes in the normal population and in AML subtypes. (A) Relative percentage of SpSp, SpN, and NN genotypes in 111 normal donors. (B) Relative number of SpSp, SpN heterozygotes, or NN homozygotes in the various AML subtypes. Cases are from Table 1. Subtypes M0 through M6 approximate early to late stages of myeloid differentiation. The highest proportions of the SpSp genotype are seen in APL-M3 and -M4 subtypes, which have high MPO expression.

Close modal

We previously found that the SpSp genotype was overrepresented in a sample of 18 AML cases, most of which had not been diagnosed as to subtype.5 To extend those findings, we analyzed 46 AML cases diagnosed as subtypes M0 to M6. These included 19 APL-M3, 11 APL-M4, 8 APL-M2 cases, and 8 cases of low MPO-expressing subtypes M0-1-5-6. Analysis of the MPO promoter sequence indicated that the SpSp genotype was overrepresented in high MPO-expressing subtypes APL-M3 and -M4; of 30 cases, 24 were SpSp, or 80% (P < .05; Table 1 and Fig 2B). APL-M3 cases were 79% SpSp (15 of 19 cases) and APL-M4 cases were 82% SpSp (9 of 11 cases). The eight cases categorized as low-expressing subtypes, M0, 1, 5, and 6, were 62% SpSp, equivalent to the normal population. The M2 subtype may be anomalous in that MPO expression is relatively high but the SpSp genotype was not overrepresented, and three of eight cases were the rare NN genotype. Examination of a greater number of M2 cases, especially the defined t8; 21 subset, will be necessary to draw conclusions. Another potentially interesting observation is that the female M3 to M4 cases appear to be more frequently of the SpSp genotype than males. As will be discussed, a female bias in SpSp association has been observed in multiple sclerosis (MS) cases.26 

Table 1.

Overrepresentation of the SpSp Genotype in AML-M3 and -M4 Subtypes

APL-M3M4M2M0156 Low Expressors
Case No.SexKaryotypeCase No.SexKaryotypeCase No.SexKaryotypeCase No.SexKaryotype
 
SpSp 801 Male N/D 921 Male N/D 1010 Male N/D 3001 (M0) Female Normal 
 803 Male t15; 17 933 Male Abnormal 7, 13, 14 1015 Female Normal 3005 (M6) Male N/D 
 812 Male N/D 935 Female N/D 1020 Female N/D 3010 (M5) Male Normal 
 823 Male t15; 17 940 Male Normal 1027 Male inv 16 3020 (M1) Male Tetraploid 
 1637 Male t15; 17 947 Male Normal    3030 (M1) Female N/D 
 1787 Female t15; 17 960 Male N/D 
 1941 Male t15; 17 966 Female N/D 
 2008 Male t15; 17 972 Male N/D 
 2098 Female t15; 17 980 Male N/D 
 2262 Male t15; 17 
 2312 Female t15; 17 
 2343 Female t15; 17 
 2354 Male t15; 17 
 2379 Female t15; 17 
 2429 Male t15; 17 
SpN 2399 Male N/D 927 Male Deletion 10.16 1030 Female N/D 3034 (M1) Male Normal 
 840 Male t15; 17 955 Male Trisomy 21    3038 (M5) Male Normal 
          3045 (M5) Male N/D 
NN 2394 Male t15; 17    1035 Male N/D 
 1848 Female t15; 17    1038 Male t8; 21 
       1040 Female 46xx,i(14q) 
APL-M3M4M2M0156 Low Expressors
Case No.SexKaryotypeCase No.SexKaryotypeCase No.SexKaryotypeCase No.SexKaryotype
 
SpSp 801 Male N/D 921 Male N/D 1010 Male N/D 3001 (M0) Female Normal 
 803 Male t15; 17 933 Male Abnormal 7, 13, 14 1015 Female Normal 3005 (M6) Male N/D 
 812 Male N/D 935 Female N/D 1020 Female N/D 3010 (M5) Male Normal 
 823 Male t15; 17 940 Male Normal 1027 Male inv 16 3020 (M1) Male Tetraploid 
 1637 Male t15; 17 947 Male Normal    3030 (M1) Female N/D 
 1787 Female t15; 17 960 Male N/D 
 1941 Male t15; 17 966 Female N/D 
 2008 Male t15; 17 972 Male N/D 
 2098 Female t15; 17 980 Male N/D 
 2262 Male t15; 17 
 2312 Female t15; 17 
 2343 Female t15; 17 
 2354 Male t15; 17 
 2379 Female t15; 17 
 2429 Male t15; 17 
SpN 2399 Male N/D 927 Male Deletion 10.16 1030 Female N/D 3034 (M1) Male Normal 
 840 Male t15; 17 955 Male Trisomy 21    3038 (M5) Male Normal 
          3045 (M5) Male N/D 
NN 2394 Male t15; 17    1035 Male N/D 
 1848 Female t15; 17    1038 Male t8; 21 
       1040 Female 46xx,i(14q) 
 Total Male Female Total No. Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 
        
                
SpSp (n) 15 10 
SpN (n) 
NN (n) 
 19   11     
%SpSp 79 77 83 82 78 100 44 50 50 62 50 100 
 Highest MPO High MPO High MPO Low MPO 
             
 Total Male Female Total No. Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 
        
                
SpSp (n) 15 10 
SpN (n) 
NN (n) 
 19   11     
%SpSp 79 77 83 82 78 100 44 50 50 62 50 100 
 Highest MPO High MPO High MPO Low MPO 
             

APL-M3 cases with identification numbers between 1637 and 2429 were Hispanic.35 MPO genotypes are listed at left as SpSp homozygotes, SpN heterozygotes, or NN homozygotes. The percentage with the SpSp genotype is also shown. Most of the APL-M3 cases were karyotyped as t(15; 17) translocations. In subtypes other than APL, karyotypes listed as normal indicate that no karyotypic abnormality was detected. Approximate relative amounts of MPO gene expression indicated at bottom are from published studies.3,4,27 

Abbreviation: ND, not determined.

SpSp genotype is associated with higher levels of MPO mRNA expression.Overrepresentation of the SpSp genotype in APL-M3 and -M4 cases implies that this genotype increases the risk to develop these leukemias. One possible explanation is that the SpSp genotype is linked to higher levels of MPO gene expression, resulting in increased DNA damage, thereby increasing the risk of leukemia. There is reason to suspect that the Sp allele is linked to higher MPO expression: the G/A base difference in the AluHRE creates a stronger SP1 binding site and RARE in the Sp allele.5 To directly determine if the SpSp genotype is linked to higher MPO gene expression, we compared steady-state levels of MPO mRNA in primary AML cells of known MPO genotype. AML cells from donors listed in Table 1 were obtained as frozen aliquots and placed in culture medium to allow for cell recovery and RNA expression. Ten donor cell samples recovered, including six APL-M3 cases: three SpSp, two SpN, and one NN. Four M2 cases included two SpSp and two NN genotypes. M4 cells of SpSp and SpN genotypes did not survive in culture. RNA was isolated by Trizol reagent, and cDNA was prepared with RT (First strand kit; Pharmacia). The cDNAs were used in PCR with radiolabeled primers designed to amplify a region between position +30 and +580 of the MPO cDNA and spanning two introns in order to distinguish the cDNA-derived product (550 bp) from potential products of genomic DNA (1,067 bp). The different samples were normalized for overall cDNA concentrations using actin primers in separate PCRs. Comparisons of MPO cDNA levels for the different genotypes were made within the subtypes, not between M2 and M3 subtypes. The RT-PCR method allows a semiquantitative determination of steady-state levels of MPO mRNA in cells of different MPO genotype. Examples of PCR products are shown in Fig 3A, and the range of values from repeated experiments is indicated in Fig 3C. For each leukemic cell tested, the level of MPO mRNA varied with time in culture or cell density. Leukemic cells of the same genotype but from different donors also differed in MPO mRNA levels, presumably reflecting other genetic differences. Differences in MPO expression levels between M2 cell samples could also reflect different causative events, whereas APL-M3 cells all exhibited the t15; 17 translocation. Overall, the results indicate that AML cells of the SpSp genotype contain higher steady-state levels of MPO mRNA than SpN or NN cells. The difference in MPO mRNA levels between SpSp and SpN heterozygotes was approximately twofold, and the difference between SpSp and NN cells was approximately threefold.

Fig. 3.

Relative amount of MPO mRNA detected by RT-PCR in primary AML cells of the M3 or M2 subclasses. (A) Autoradiograph shows radiolabeled RT-PCR products from primary AML cells. Lanes 1 to 10, AML-M3 or -M4 cases from Table 1. The top panel shows 550-bp PCR products derived from random primed cDNA using MPO primers. The bottom panel shows products from a separate PCR using actin primers. The reactions in lanes 1 to 4 and 5 to 10 are from different experiments. (B) APL cells from patient no. 803 were cultured for 20 hours in the presence (+RA) or absence (−RA) of RA (10−6 mol/L). RT-PCR was performed with MPO primers. Lane 1 is the same as lane 5 in A. The actin control reactions were repeated to include both cDNAs. (C) Range of MPO transcript levels in the different AML donor cells in multiple experiments is shown with standard deviations indicated. Time in culture ranged from 48 hours to 2 weeks before RNA isolation. Different RT-PCR experiments were normalized to β-actin cDNA levels and also to the MPO signal from a cDNA standard prepared from the NB4 cell line (APL-derived). Relative amount of MPO protein in the different AML cell samples was determined by SDS gel electrophoresis of whole-cell extracts. Proteins were blotted onto nylon membrane, reacted with anti-MPO antibodies, and quantified. Values shown are an average of 3 separate experiments.

Fig. 3.

Relative amount of MPO mRNA detected by RT-PCR in primary AML cells of the M3 or M2 subclasses. (A) Autoradiograph shows radiolabeled RT-PCR products from primary AML cells. Lanes 1 to 10, AML-M3 or -M4 cases from Table 1. The top panel shows 550-bp PCR products derived from random primed cDNA using MPO primers. The bottom panel shows products from a separate PCR using actin primers. The reactions in lanes 1 to 4 and 5 to 10 are from different experiments. (B) APL cells from patient no. 803 were cultured for 20 hours in the presence (+RA) or absence (−RA) of RA (10−6 mol/L). RT-PCR was performed with MPO primers. Lane 1 is the same as lane 5 in A. The actin control reactions were repeated to include both cDNAs. (C) Range of MPO transcript levels in the different AML donor cells in multiple experiments is shown with standard deviations indicated. Time in culture ranged from 48 hours to 2 weeks before RNA isolation. Different RT-PCR experiments were normalized to β-actin cDNA levels and also to the MPO signal from a cDNA standard prepared from the NB4 cell line (APL-derived). Relative amount of MPO protein in the different AML cell samples was determined by SDS gel electrophoresis of whole-cell extracts. Proteins were blotted onto nylon membrane, reacted with anti-MPO antibodies, and quantified. Values shown are an average of 3 separate experiments.

Close modal

RA treatment of primary APL cells resulted in rapid loss of MPO transcription (Fig 3B), consistent with similar findings for the APL-derived cell line NB434 and with the observation that RA induces differentiation of primary APL cells,31 since differentiation is accompanied by loss of MPO transcription.13,15 

To determine if the higher levels of MPO mRNA correlate with higher protein levels, Western blot analysis was performed. Cellular extracts were electrophoresed in SDS-polyacrylamide gels, transferred to nylon membranes, and reacted with rabbit polyclonal antibodies directed against human MPO (Dako) to detect the 59-kD large subunit. These data indicate that cells of the SpSp genotype contain higher levels of MPO protein than SpN or NN cells.

These findings indicate that the SpSp genotype is overrepresented in APL-M3 and -M4 subtypes. The normal population is 61% SpSp, whereas these subtypes are 79% to 82% SpSp. The SpSp genotype is further shown to be associated with higher levels of MPO mRNA than the SpN or NN genotypes in primary AML cells. Overrepresentation of the higher-expressing SpSp MPO genotype in APL-M3 and -M4 implies that higher MPO levels increase the incidence of these leukemias. In APL-M3 and -M4, the ratio of SpSp to other genotypes was 4:1, 2.6-fold higher than the 1.5:1 ratio observed in the general population, suggesting that the SpSp genotype is a 2.6-fold risk factor. Because 61% of the normal population is SpSp, this genotype clearly does not constitute a high risk factor for leukemia. Nevertheless, these findings suggest that if APL occurs in one of 200,000 individuals overall, the incidence in SpSp individuals might be one in 100,000 and in SpN or NN individuals it might be one in 300,000. Causative events such as DNA mutations or translocations may occur about 2.6-fold more frequently in cells of the SpSp genotype, due to the higher levels of MPO-generated free radicals. MPO is present at high levels in promyelocytes, comprising 2% to 4% of the cellular protein, such that MPO-generated radicals could exist at levels sufficient to generate significant DNA cross-linking, mutation,22 or strand breakage,21 thereby increasing the likelihood of translocations such as the APL-associated t15; 17.

As a second possible mechanism by which MPO might increase the risk for leukemia, the oxidizing free radicals produced by the MPO pathway could interfere with the natural killer cell response to emerging cancer cells. Free radicals generated by monocytes have been shown to inhibit the ability of natural killer cells to lyse AML cells in culture.36 Thus, SpSp progenitor leukemic cells may evade the natural killer defense approximately 2.6 times more frequently than other genotypes. According to this model, the SpSp genotype would not increase the incidence rate of translocations or other causative events, but would increase the number of progenitor cells that succeed in evading immune surveillance.

These findings suggest that the SpSp genotype is most strongly associated with AML subtypes around the promyelocyte stage that express the myeloid stage-specific factors required for MPO gene transcription. Such factors or their cognate promoter elements have not been identified, although a number of upstream or intronic DNA elements have been found to bind cellular proteins or to act as promoter elements in transfection assays when linked to a reporter gene.37 There are also potential estrogen response elements (EREs) in intron 7 (which happens to contain an Alu element38 ) and intron 9.39 The upstream AluHRE including -463 G/A is one of the better-characterized promoter elements, with SP1, TR-RXR, and RAR-RXR binding sites.5 This site functions as a strong RARE in transfection assays, and RA strongly regulates MPO transcription in APL cells (Fig 3B). The most compelling evidence that this AluHRE functions as a MPO promoter element is the selection of the SpSp genotype in leukemic cells: This implies that the -463 G/A base difference significantly alters MPO transcription levels, thereby providing the basis for allelic selection. The -463 G results in a stronger RARE in the Sp allele, which may enhance MPO expression in APL leukemic cells and may also be involved in the downregulation of MPO in RA-treated APL cells.34 

There is no evidence that the Sp and N alleles differ in the MPO coding region. A number of MPO cDNAs have been sequenced,10,16,40 and there is only one reported allelic polymorphism, a C to T substitution in exon 10 (R569W mutation) that results in hereditary MPO deficiency.41,42 This R569W allele is too rare to correspond to the N allele (22% of haplotypes). As regards potential differences in the MPO genomic sequence, the only complete sequence of the MPO gene including the -463 region is of the N allele.38 Other MPO gene sequences have been reported but cannot be identified as to allele in the absence of the upstream sequence.10 As regards the association of the MPO gene with APL, it should be noted that the MPO gene has been localized to 17q23.1,43 relatively distant in linkage terms from the APL-associated chromosomal breakpoint at 17q21 within the RARα gene.44 

The SpSp genotype is not only associated with AML. Recent findings link this genotype to early-onset MS in females.26 Macrophages and microglia, which are descendants of the myeloid precursors giving rise to AML, play a key role in the demyelination of nerve axons in MS.45 Our findings indicate that brain macrophages/microglia at MS lesions contain MPO and that females with the SpSp genotype exhibit symptoms at an earlier age, suggesting that higher levels of MPO in microglia lead to accelerated demyelination. Females with early-onset MS were 86% SpSp, but the SpSp genotype was not overrepresented in males with MS. This lends credence to the preliminary observation that females with APL-M3 or -M4 are more highly associated with the SpSp genotype than males. The MPO gene may be upregulated through estrogen, possibly through the reported intronic ERE39 or through the upstream AluHRE, based on findings that some AluHREs can function as EREs.46 

We thank Prescott L. Deininger for providing normal donor DNA for analysis.

Supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (RR09118-CA72995 to W.F.R.).

Address reprint requests to Wanda F. Reynolds, PhD, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, 3099 Science Park Rd, Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92121.

1
Klebanoff
SJ
Myeloperoxidase-halide-hydrogen peroxide anti-bacterial system.
J Bacteriol
95
1969
2131
2
Klebanoff
SJ
Coombs
RW
Viricidal effect of polymorphonuclear leukocytes on human immunodeficiency virus-1. Role of the myeloperoxidase system.
J Clin Invest
89
1992
2014
3
Fouret
P
du Bois
RM
Bernaudin
JF
Takahashi
H
Ferrans
VJ
Crystal
RG
Expression of the neutrophil elastase gene during human bone marrow cell differentiation.
J Exp Med
169
1989
833
4
Zaki
SR
Austin
GE
Swan
D
Srinivasan
A
Ragab
AH
Chan
WC
Human myeloperoxidase gene expression in acute leukemia.
Blood
74
1989
2096
5
Piedrafita
FJ
Molander
R
Vansant
G
Orlova
EA
Pfahl
M
Reynolds
WF
An Alu element in the myeloperoxidase promoter contains a composite SP1-thyroid hormone-retinoic acid response element.
J Biol Chem
271
1996
14412
6
Vansant
G
Reynolds
WF
The consensus sequence of a major Alu subfamily contains a functional retinoic acid response element.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
18
1995
8229
7
Leid
M
Kastner
P
Chambon
P
Multiplicity generates diversity in the retinoic acid signalling pathways.
Trends Biochem Sci
10
1992
427
8
Austin
GE
Lam
L
Zaki
SR
Chan
WC
Hodge
T
Hou
J
Swan
D
Zhang
W
Racine
M
Whitsett
C
Brown
T
Sequence comparison of putative regulatory DNA of the 5′ flanking region of the myeloperoxidase gene in normal and leukemic bone marrow cells.
Leukemia
9
1993
1445
9
Lubbert
M
Oster
W
Ludwig
W-D
Ganser
A
Mertelmann
R
Herrmann
F
A switch toward demethylation in associated with expression of myeloperoxidase in acute myeloblastic and promyelocytic leukemias.
Blood
80
1992
2066
10
Morishita
K
Tsuchiya
M
Asano
S
Kaziro
Y
Nagata
S
Chromosomal gene structure of human myeloperoxidase and regulation of its expression by granulocyte colony stimulating factor.
J Biol Chem
262
1987
15208
11
Koeffler
HP
Ranyard
J
Pertcheck
M
Myeloperoxidase: Its structure and expression during myeloid differentiation.
Blood
65
1985
484
12
Yamada
M
Kurahashi
K
Regulation of myeloperoxidase gene expression during differentiation of human myeloid leukemia HL-60 cells.
J Biol Chem
259
1984
3021
13
Tobler
A
Miller
CW
Johnson
KR
Selsted
ME
Rovera
G
Koeffler
HP
Regulation of gene expression of myeloperoxidase during myeloid differentiation.
J Cell Physiol
136
1988
215
14
Ford
AM
Healy
LE
Bennett
CA
Navarro
E
Spooncer
E
Greaves
MF
Multilineage phenotypes of interleukin-3–dependent progenitor cells.
Blood
79
1992
1962
15
Sagoh
T
Yamada
M
Transcriptional regulation of myeloperoxidase gene expression in myeloid leukemia HL-60 cells during differentiation into granulocytes and macrophages.
Arch Biochem Biophys
262
1988
599
16
Johnson
KR
Nauseef
WM
Care
A
Wheelock
MJ
Shane
S
Hudson
S
Koeffler
HP
Selsted
M
Miller
C
Rovera
G
Characterization of cDNA clones for human myeloperoxidase: Predicted amino acid sequence and evidence for multiple mRNA species.
Nucleic Acids Res
15
1987
2113
17
Bainton
DF
Ullyot
JL
Farquhar
MG
The development of neutrophilic polymorphonuclear leukocytes in human bone marrow.
Exp Med
134
1971
907
18
Nauseef
WM
Cogley
M
McCormick
S
Effect of the R569W missense mutation on the biosynthesis of myeloperoxidase.
J Biol Chem
271
1996
9546
19
Ramos
CL
Pou
S
Britigan
BE
Cohen
MS
Rosen
GM
Spin trapping evidence for myeloperoxidase dependent hydroxyl radical formation by neutrophils and monocytes.
J Biol Chem
267
1992
8307
20
Hazen
S
Hsu
F
Duffin
K
Heinecke
JW
Molecular chlorine generated by the myeloperoxidase-hydrogen peroxide-chloride system of phagocytes converts low density lipoprotein cholesterol into a family of chlorinated sterols.
J Biol Chem
271
1996
1861
21
Van Rensburg
CE
Van Staden
AM
Anderson
R
Van Rensburg
EJ
Hypochlorous acid potentiates hydrogen peroxide–mediated DNA-strand breaks in human mononuclear leucocytes.
Mutat Res
265
1992
255
22
Petruska
JM
Mosebrook
DR
Jakab
GJ
Trush
MA
Myeloperoxidase enhanced formation of trans 7,8 dihydroxbenzo(a)pyrene-DNA adducts in lung tissue in vitro: A role of pulmonary inflammation in the bioactivation of a procarcinogen.
Carcinogen
13
1992
1075
23
Josephy
PD
The role of peroxidase-catalyzed activation of aromatic amines in breast cancer.
Mutagen
11
1996
3
24
Pero
RW
Sheng
Y
Olsson
A
Bryngelsson
C
Lund-Pero
M
Hypochlorous acid/N-chloramines are naturally produced DNA repair inhibitors.
Carcinogenesis
17
1996
13
25
Daugherty
A
Rateri
DL
Dunn
J
Heinecke
JW
Myeloperoxidase: A catalyst for lipoprotein oxidation, is expressed in human atherosclerotic lesions.
J Clin Invest
94
1994
437
26
Nagra R, Becher B, Tourtellotte WW, Antel JP, Gold D, Palidino T, Smith RA, James R, Nelson JR, Reynolds WF: Immunohistochemical and genetic evidence of myeloperoxidase involvement in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol (in press)
27
Witko-Sarsat
V
Allen
R
Paulais
M
Nguyen
A
Bessou
G
Lenoir
G
Descamps-Latscha
B
Disturbed myeloperoxidase dependent activity of neutrophils in cystic fibrosis homozygotes and heterozygotes and its correction by amiloride.
J Immunol
157
1996
2728
28
Bennett
JM
Catovsky
D
Daniel
MT
Flandrin
G
Galton
DA
Gralnick
HR
Sultan
C
Proposed revised criteria for the classification of acute myeloid leukemia. A report of the French-American-British Cooperative Group.
Ann Intern Med
103
1985
620
29
de The
H
Lavau
C
Marchio
A
Chomienne
C
Degos
L
Dejean
A
The PML-RAR alpha fusion mRNA generated by the t(15; 17) translocation in acute promyelocytic leukemia encodes a functionally altered RAR.
Cell
66
1991
675
30
Dyck
JA
Maul
GG
Miller
WH
Chen
JD
Kakizuka
A
Evans
R
A novel macromolecular structure is a target of the promyelocyte-retinoic acid receptor oncoprotein.
Cell
76
1994
333
31
Chomienne
C
Ballerini
P
Balitrand
N
Daniel
MT
Genaud
P
Castaigne
S
Degos
L
All-trans retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukemias. II. In vitro studies: Structure-function relationship.
Blood
76
1990
1710
32
Huang
ME
Ye
YC
Chen
SR
Chai
JR
Lu
JX
Zhoa
L
Gu
LJ
Wang
ZY
Use of all-trans retinoic acid in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia.
Blood
72
1988
567
33
Chen
Z
Brand
NJ
Chen
A
Chen
SJ
Tong
JH
Wang
ZY
Waxman
S
Zelent
A
Fusion between a novel Kruppel-like zinc finger gene and the retinoic acid receptor-alpha locus due to a variant t(11; 17) translocation associated with acute promyelocytic leukemia.
EMBO J
12
1993
1161
34
Khanna-Gupta
A
Kolibata
K
Zibello
TA
Berliner
N
NB4 cells show bilineage potential and an aberrant pattern of neutrophil secondary granule protein gene expression.
Blood
84
1994
294
35
Douer
D
Preston-Martin
S
Chang
E
Nichols
PW
Watkins
KJ
Levine
AM
High frequency of acute promyelocytic leukemia among Latinos with acute myeloid leukemia.
Blood
87
1996
308
36
Brune
M
Hansson
M
Mellqvist
UH
Hermodsson
S
Hellstrand
K
NK cell–mediated killing of AML blasts: Role of histamine, monocytes and reactive oxygen metabolites.
Eur J Haematol
57
1996
312
37
Zhao
WG
Regmi
A
Austin
ED
Braun
JE
Racine
M
Austin
GE
Cis-elements in the promoter region of the human myeloperoxidase (MPO) gene.
Leukemia
10
1996
1089
38
Johnson
K
Gemperlein
I
Hudson
S
Shane
S
Rovera
G
Complete nucleotide sequence of the human myeloperoxidase gene.
Nucleic Acids Res
17
1989
7985
39
Yamada
M
Yoshida
M
Hashinaka
K
Identification of transcriptional cis-elements in introns 7 and 9 of the myeloperoxidase gene.
J Biol Chem
268
1993
13479
40
Hashinaka
K
Nishio
C
Hur
SJ
Sakiyama
F
Tsunasawa
S
Yamada
M
Multiple species of myeloperoxidase messenger RNAs produced by alternative splicing and differential polyadenylation.
Biochemistry
27
1988
5906
41
Nauseef
WM
Brigham
S
Cogley
M
Hereditary myeloperoxidase deficiency due to a missense mutation of arginine 569 to tryptophan.
J Biol Chem
269
1994
1212
42
Kizaki
M
Miller
CW
Selsted
ME
Koeffler
HP
Myeloperoxidase (MPO) gene mutation in hereditary MPO deficiency.
Blood
83
1994
1935
43
Law
DJ
Prasad
MA
King
SE
Spranger
KD
Lee
YH
Fox
RE
Collins
EE
Gebuhr
TC
Miller
DE
Petty
EM
Localization of the human estrogen responsive finger protein (EFP) (ZNF147) within a YAC contig containing the myeloperoxidase (MPO) gene.
Genomics
28
1995
361
44
Chang
KS
Schroeder
W
Siciliano
MJ
Thompson
LH
McCredie
K
Beran
M
Freireich
EJ
Liang
JC
Trujillo
JM
Stass
SA
The localization of the human myeloperoxidase gene is in close proximity to the translocation breakpoint in acute promyelocytic leukemia.
Leukemia
1
1987
458
45
Steinman
L
Multiple sclerosis: A coordinated immunological attack against myelin in the central nervous system.
Cell
85
1996
299
46
Norris
J
Fan
D
Aleman
C
Marks
JR
Futreal
PA
Wiseman
RW
Iglehart
JD
Deininger
PL
McDonnell
DP
Identification of a new subclass of Alu DNA repeats which can function as estrogen receptor–dependent transcriptional enhancers.
J Biol Chem
270
1995
22777
Sign in via your Institution