The prevalence of the blood-borne TT virus (TTV) in Italian hemophiliacs treated with different preparations of factor VIII was determined. Of the 178 hemophilic patients (mean age, 29 years), TTV-DNA was found in 123 (69%), in comparison to 22 of 100 (22%) blood donors (P < .0001). Of the 123 patients who tested positive for TTV, significant numbers were also infected with human hepatitis viruses and/or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): 31% had TTV and hepatitis C virus (HCV), 22% had TTV, and at least 2 of the 4 known human blood-borne viruses tested, whereas 15% had TTV alone. The risk of acquiring TTV alone was only slightly higher in recipients of unmodified plasma factor concentrates (78%, odds ratio, 1.24; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.27 to 5.79) than in patients treated with virus inactivated concentrates (67%), whereas the risk was significantly lower in recipients of recombinant factors (11%, odds ratio, 0.09; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.52). Serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels were elevated in 2 of 27 patients (7%) with TTV alone compared with 43 of 56 patients (77%) coinfected with TTV and HCV and compared with 16 of 21 patients (76%) with HCV alone. Taken together, these results indicate that TTV frequently infects Italian hemophiliacs treated with plasma-derived factor VIII concentrates, both unmodified and virus-inactivated. Our results do not suggest a causal effect of TTV on chronic liver disease in these patients.

HEMOPHILIC PATIENTS ARE at high risk of acquiring viral hepatitis after repeated treatment with plasma-derived clotting factor products.1-3 With the implementation of procedures for inactivating viruses in plasma-derived products, a dramatic decrease in the transmission of hepatitis B and C viruses has been observed in this patient population.4,5 Virus inactivation procedures also have been successful in reducing the risk of transmitting the blood-borne hepatitis G virus (HGV).6,7However, other blood-borne viruses, known and as yet unidentified, might escape the current virucidal procedures in plasma products and establish infections in the recipients. For instance, an outbreak of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection occurred in 1995 among European patients infused with factor VIII (FVIII) preparations treated with solvent-detergent, a procedure ineffective against a nonenveloped virus such as HAV.8 

Recently, a new nonenveloped, blood-borne, single-stranded DNA virus, TTV, was identified in sera of high-risk patients using a molecular subtraction technique.9,10 This virus was subsequently detected in blood donors worldwide11,12 and in higher frequencies in recipients of repeated transfusions of blood products.13-19 The detection of the TTV-DNA in patient sera in association with elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) raised the possibility that TTV may be a new hepatotropic virus.9,17 Recent studies have shown that TTV can be detected in blood products and in multitransfused hemophilic patients, and it remains controversial if virucidal procedures are effective against TTV.14-16 Therefore, this study was initiated to assess the prevalence and potential hepatotoxicity of TTV in Italian hemophiliacs treated with different clotting factor preparations: unmodified plasma-derived clotting factor concentrate, concentrates treated with virucidal procedures, or recombinant FVIII.

Study subjects.

A total of 178 consecutive Italian hemophilic patients (mean age, 29 years; range, 2 to 73 years) treated at the Angelo Bianchi Bonomi Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Milano, Italy, were included in this study. The only criterion used for selection was that all patients had been prospectively followed with annual liver function tests since their first treatment at the Center (mean follow-up of 16 years; range, 2 to 27 years). The epidemiological and clinical characteristics of these patients are summarized in Table 1. The 38 patients with mild hemophilia had been infused with concentrates because they did not respond to 1-deamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin (DDAVP). One hundred twenty-seven (71%) patients had been treated with unmodified concentrates until 1985 and with virus-inactivated concentrates thereafter; 33 (19%) patients were given only virus-inactivated concentrates, and 18 (10%) were given recombinant FVIII preparations exclusively. The virus inactivation method implemented by manufacturers from 1984 to 1987 was dry-heating at 60° to 68°C; this procedure was effective against the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), but not of hepatitis C virus (HCV).20 Since 1987, more effective virucidal procedures, such as dry-heating at >80°C, vapor heating, solvent/detergent, and pasteurization were adopted. Although most patients received more than 1 virally-inactivated product, the solvent/detergent method was the most widely used, with at least two thirds of the patients having been treated with concentrates inactivated with this method. One hundred volunteer blood donors (73 men, 27 women; mean age, 36 years) from the hospital blood bank, all with persistently normal ALT and no serum hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), anti-HCV, or anti-HIV were included as controls.

Table 1.

Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of the 178 Hemophilic Patients Enrolled in the Study

Classifications of Patients No. Age, yr Mean ± SD (range)
Type of hemophilia  
 A 153 (86%)  30 ± 17 (2-73)  
 B  25 (14%) 26 ± 12 (6-57)  
Severity of hemophilia  
 Severe 121 (68%)  27 ± 15 (2-70)  
 Moderate  19 (11%) 23 ± 15 (4-57)  
 Mild  38 (21%) 40 ± 14 (17-73)  
Type of concentrates received 
 Nonvirus-inactivated  127 (71%)  36 ± 13 (4-73) 
 Virus-inactivated  33 (19%)  19 ± 13 (6-57) 
 Recombinant  18 (10%)  5 ± 3 (2-15) 
Classifications of Patients No. Age, yr Mean ± SD (range)
Type of hemophilia  
 A 153 (86%)  30 ± 17 (2-73)  
 B  25 (14%) 26 ± 12 (6-57)  
Severity of hemophilia  
 Severe 121 (68%)  27 ± 15 (2-70)  
 Moderate  19 (11%) 23 ± 15 (4-57)  
 Mild  38 (21%) 40 ± 14 (17-73)  
Type of concentrates received 
 Nonvirus-inactivated  127 (71%)  36 ± 13 (4-73) 
 Virus-inactivated  33 (19%)  19 ± 13 (6-57) 
 Recombinant  18 (10%)  5 ± 3 (2-15) 
Virological and biochemical measurements in patient sera.

Serum ALT activity was measured by an automated standardized colorimetric assay (normal value, ≤ 40 U/L). HBsAg and antibodies to HIV (anti-HIV) in sera were tested by immunoenzymatic assays (Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL). Serum HGV-RNA was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as previously described,7and HCV-RNA was detected by a nested PCR using primers of the 5′ noncoding region of the viral genome as previously described.21 

Determination of TTV DNA by PCR.

Serum TTV DNA was detected by a seminested PCR as previously described.10 13 Specifically, 7 μL of serum DNA (the amount of DNA purified from an equivalent of 50 μL of serum) was amplified by PCR in a 9600 thermal cycler (Perkin-Elmer, Emeryville, CA). The following PCR protocol was used: 1 cycle at 95°C for 9 minutes, 35 cycles at 94°C for 30 seconds, 58°C for 30 seconds, 72°C for 45 seconds, and 1 cycle at 72°C for 7 minutes. The reaction conditions were 30 pmoles of each sense (N059 5′-ACA GAC AGA GGA GAA GGC AAC ATG-3′) and antisense (NG063 5′-CTG GCA TTT TAC CAT TTC CAA AGT-3′) primers with 2.5 U of AmpliTaq Gold (Perkin-Elmer) in 50 μL of reaction volume. Five microliters of the amplification products was submitted to a second round of PCR using the same reaction mix and conditions as above with a seminested primer set (sense NG061 5′ GGC AAC ATG TTA TGG ATA GAC TGG 3′, antisense NG063). Multiple positive and negative controls were included in each PCR assay, and PCR products were analyzed in a 2% agarose gel electrophoresis with ethidium bromide staining. Results of all samples tested positive for TTV DNA in the PCR were confirmed in separate assays and PCR products were also sequence-confirmed by automated sequencing on an ABI 373 sequencer (Perkin Elmer, Foster City, CA).

Statistical analysis.

The prevalence of serum TTV-DNA and other virus markers was compared by the χ2 test and/or Fisher's exact test. Differences in the prevalence of serum TTV-DNA and other virus markers, on the basis of factor VIII preparations, were estimated by the odds ratio and their approximate 95% confidence interval (CI).

TTV-DNA was detected in the serum of 123 hemophilic patients and 22 blood donors (69% v 22%, P < .0001). The prevalence of TTV-DNA was higher in the 127 recipients of unmodified concentrates (78%) and in the 33 recipients of virus-inactivated products (67%) than in the 18 recipients of recombinant concentrates only (11%) (Table 2). To assess whether a correlation exist between treatment intensity and risk of acquiring TTV, TTV-DNA seroprevalences were related to the severity of hemophilia. TTV-DNA was present in 102 of 140 patients (73%) with severe or moderate hemophilia (FVIII 5% or less) compared with 21 of 38 (55%) with mild hemophilia (P = .053).

Table 2.

Prevalence of Viral Markers in Sera of Blood Donors and Hemophilic Patients Treated With Different Concentrates

Group No. TTV-DNANo. (% of total) of Serum Samples Positive for Virus Markers
HBsAg HCV-RNA HGV-RNA Anti-HIV
Healthy blood donors  A  100   22 (22%), PAvB < .0001  0 (0%)    0 (0%), PAvB < .0001  2 (2%)   0 (0%), PAvB < .0001  
Hemophilic patients  178  123 (69%)  6 (3%)  113 (63%)  11 (6%) 30 (17%)  
Type of factor infused  
 Nonvirus-inactivated C  127   99 (78%), PCvE < .0001 6 (5%)  108 (85%), PCvE < .0001 10 (8%)  30 (24%), PCvE < .0001 
 Virus-inactivated  D  33   22 (67%), PDvE < .001  0 (0%)    5 (15%) 1 (3%)   0 (0%)  
 Recombinant  E  18   2 (11%)  0 (0%)    0 (0%)  0 (0%)  0 (0%) 
Group No. TTV-DNANo. (% of total) of Serum Samples Positive for Virus Markers
HBsAg HCV-RNA HGV-RNA Anti-HIV
Healthy blood donors  A  100   22 (22%), PAvB < .0001  0 (0%)    0 (0%), PAvB < .0001  2 (2%)   0 (0%), PAvB < .0001  
Hemophilic patients  178  123 (69%)  6 (3%)  113 (63%)  11 (6%) 30 (17%)  
Type of factor infused  
 Nonvirus-inactivated C  127   99 (78%), PCvE < .0001 6 (5%)  108 (85%), PCvE < .0001 10 (8%)  30 (24%), PCvE < .0001 
 Virus-inactivated  D  33   22 (67%), PDvE < .001  0 (0%)    5 (15%) 1 (3%)   0 (0%)  
 Recombinant  E  18   2 (11%)  0 (0%)    0 (0%)  0 (0%)  0 (0%) 

HBsAg was detected in 6 (5%) recipients of unmodified concentrates only. The prevalence of HCV-RNA and anti-HIV was significantly greater in patients treated with unmodified concentrates (85% and 24%, respectively) than in the recipients of virus-inactivated (15% and 0) or recombinant concentrates (0 and 0). In contrast, HGV-RNA was rarely detected in the recipients of both unmodified concentrates and virus-inactivated or recombinant factors (8% v 3% and 0, respectively) (Table 2). TTV-DNA alone was detected in 27 patients (15%), HCV-RNA alone in 21 (12%), TTV-DNA+HCV-RNA in 56 (31%), more than 1 virus in 42 (24%), and no virus in 32 (18%) (Table 3).

Table 3.

Pattern of Serum ALT Activity by Serum Virus Markers

Group Serum Positive for Viral Marker(s) No. of Patients Serum ALT Activity
Normal Persistently or Intermittently Elevated
A  None  32  30 (94%)  2 (6%)  
TTV  27  25 (93%)  2 (7%) PBvD < .0001  
C  HCV  21 5 (24%)  16 (76%)  PBvC < .0001 
D  TTV and HCV  56  13 (23%)  43 (77%)  
TTV, HCV and others  42  7 (17%)  35 (83%)  
Total  178  80 (45%)  98 (55%) 
Group Serum Positive for Viral Marker(s) No. of Patients Serum ALT Activity
Normal Persistently or Intermittently Elevated
A  None  32  30 (94%)  2 (6%)  
TTV  27  25 (93%)  2 (7%) PBvD < .0001  
C  HCV  21 5 (24%)  16 (76%)  PBvC < .0001 
D  TTV and HCV  56  13 (23%)  43 (77%)  
TTV, HCV and others  42  7 (17%)  35 (83%)  
Total  178  80 (45%)  98 (55%) 

Overall, 98 patients (55%) had either intermittently or persistently elevated serum ALT values. Only 2 of 27 (7%) patients exclusively infected by TTV had abnormal ALT compared with 43 of the 56 (77%) who were coinfected by TTV and HCV, and the 16 of 21 (76%) who circulated HCV-RNA alone (Table 3). The risk of acquiring TTV alone was 1.24 (95% CI, 0.27 to 5.79) for the recipients of unmodified concentrates and 0.09 (95% CI, 0.01 to 0.52) for the recipients of recombinant factors compared with patients with virus-inactivated concentrates. The corresponding figures for the risk of acquiring any other virus were 41.4 (95% CI, 9.3 to 204.5) and 0 (95% CI, 0 to 0.82), respectively (Table 4).

Table 4.

Risk of Acquiring Blood-Borne Viruses by Treatment

Type of Concentrates No Viral Markers Positive for TTV OnlyPositive for any of the Viral Markers Tested
No. of Patients No. of Patients Odds Ratio(95% CI) No. of Patients Odds Ratio (95% CI)
Virus-inactivated  11  16  #   6  
Recombinant  16   2  0.09  (0.01-0.52)  0  (0-0.82)  
Unmodified   5   9  1.24  (0.27-5.79) 113  41.4  (9.3-204.5) 
Type of Concentrates No Viral Markers Positive for TTV OnlyPositive for any of the Viral Markers Tested
No. of Patients No. of Patients Odds Ratio(95% CI) No. of Patients Odds Ratio (95% CI)
Virus-inactivated  11  16  #   6  
Recombinant  16   2  0.09  (0.01-0.52)  0  (0-0.82)  
Unmodified   5   9  1.24  (0.27-5.79) 113  41.4  (9.3-204.5) 

To assess whether exposure to TTV was affected by patients' age, TTV-DNA prevalences were calculated in donors and patients after stratification by decades (Table 5). In donors, TTV-DNA rates were 19% in the 31 subjects aged 20 to 30 years, 16% in the 31 subjects aged 31 to 40 years, 28% in the 21 subjects aged 41 to 50 years, and 28% in the 17 subjects older than 50 years. In hemophiliacs, there was a clear cut increase of TTV-DNA prevalence in the group older than 10 years (76% v 32%, P < .001). However, when the 28 patients younger than 10 years were stratified by treatment modalities, serum TTV-DNA was detected only in 2 of 16 (12%) who were exclusively treated by recombinant factors compared with 7 of 12 (58%) of those who had received recombinant and virus-inactivated factors (P = .01).

Table 5.

Prevalence of TTV in Hemophiliacs and Blood Donors

Age Positive for TTV (%)
Blood donors  
 31  20-30  19  
 31 31-40  16  
 21  41-50  28  
 17  >50  29 
Hemophiliacs  
  28  <10  32  
 150  >10 76 
Age Positive for TTV (%)
Blood donors  
 31  20-30  19  
 31 31-40  16  
 21  41-50  28  
 17  >50  29 
Hemophiliacs  
  28  <10  32  
 150  >10 76 

The TT virus was initially identified as a transfusion-transmissible agent present in a large number of patients with acute and chronic hepatitis of non-A to G etiology.9,10 This virus was also reported in severe hemophiliacs in Scotland, Japan, and France who were recipients of TTV-infected batches of clotting factor concentrates manufactured from large plasma pools.14-16 Sixty-nine percent of the hemophilic patients evaluated in this study circulated TTV-DNA compared with 22% healthy blood donors. Unlike HBV, HCV, and HIV infections that prevailed in the recipients of unmodified concentrates, TTV was equally common in the recipients of unmodified concentrates and in those treated with virus-inactivated factors only (78% and 67%, respectively). The prevalence of TTV viremia in our Italian hemophiliacs, even in the recipients of virus-inactivated clotting concentrates, was higher than that reported for patients from other countries. A study in France16 reported a 30% prevalence of TTV-DNA among recipients of virus-inactivated concentrates, whereas the studies in UK and Japan demonstrated lower rates of serum TTV-DNA among recipients of virus-inactivated products than in recipients of unmodified concentrates (5% and 43% v27% and 78%, respectively).14 15 

TTV is a nonlipid-enveloped virus and, therefore, it might be present in pooled coagulation factor-concentrates, virally-inactivated with solvent/detergent method. In vitro studies have shown that solvent/detergent is less effective than heating (pasteurization at 60°C for 10 hours) in inactivating TTV.14 As many as two thirds of our patients have been treated with solvent/detergent-inactivated products. Yet, the higher rate of TTV viremia observed in our patients is unlikely to be due exclusively to differences in efficiency of virus-inactivation procedures, because comparable prevalence of TTV was observed in patients who received clotting factors treated with other procedures.15,16 Both blood product–related and nonparenteral, community-acquired infections could contribute to the high frequency of TTV in the Italian hemophiliacs, consistent with a higher prevalence of TTV in Italian blood donors compared with those in other western countries. A potential fecal transmission route of TTV has been suggested.22 In this study, TTV-DNA was detected in 22% healthy blood donors, despite the fact that this population was selected on the basis of being at low risk of blood-borne infections. High prevalence (>90%) of TTV-DNA also has been observed in multitransfused Italian thalassemic patients,13 however, the precise reasons for a higher carrier rate in Italy is presently unclear.

In our patients, the prevalence of HCV-RNA and anti-HIV was significantly greater in patients treated with unmodified concentrates (85%) than in recipients of virus-inactivated (15%) or recombinant concentrates (0%). Anti-HIV and HBsAg were only detected in recipients of unmodified concentrates, 24% and 5%, respectively. Hepatitis G viral RNA, however, was rarely detected (0% to 8%) in hemophiliacs, regardless of the source of clotting factors. Interestingly, the risk of acquiring TTV alone was greater for the recipients of unmodified concentrates than for the recipients of recombinant factors when compared with patients who received virus-inactivated concentrates (relative risk [RR], 1.24; 95% CI, 0.27 to 5.79v 0.09; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.52). The corresponding figures for the risk of acquiring any HCV, HBV, HGV, or HIV were 41.4 (95% CI, 9.3 to 204.5) and 0 (95% CI, 0 to 0.82), respectively.

In previous studies, the potential of TTV causing hepatitis was implicated by the association of TT viremia with ALT elevation.9,17 In this study, biochemical signs of liver disease were present in half the patients, but only in 7% of those exclusively infected by TTV. The possibility of underestimating TTV-related liver damage due to the imperfect diagnostic accuracy of serum ALT patterns, in patients with transfusion-related hepatitis, cannot be ruled out, as we learned from HCV-infected patients.23 Taken together, however, results in this study do not suggest a causal effect of TTV on chronic liver disease of unknown etiology in this small population (7%) of TTV-infected hemophiliacs. There is also no evidence of the virus affecting the degree of liver damage when present as coinfection with HBV or HCV. Nevertheless, association of TTV with transient elevation of ALT and its potential for causing hepatitis has been reported in transfusion recipients and immunocompromised organ-transplant patients.17 A better understanding of the pathogenicity of TTV and the use of recombinant clotting factor should reduce any further hepatic complications in hemophilic patients.

The authors thank Dr R. Bohenzky and the sequencing-informatics team at Sentinel Biosciences, Inc for their expert technical support; Professor J.P. Allain and Dr H. Lee for their helpful discussion and encouragement, and Dr A. Russo for statistical analysis.

Supported by a grant from Istituto Superiore di Sanità(96/B/T24).

The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” in accordance with 18 U.S.C. section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

1
Fletcher
ML
Trowell
JM
Craske
J
Pavier
K
Rizza
CR
Non-A, non-B hepatitis after transfusion of FVIII in infrequently treated patients.
Br Med J
287
1983
1754
2
Makris
M
Preston
FE
Triger
DR
Underwood
JCE
Choo
QL
Kuo
G
Houghton
M
Hepatitis C antibody and chronic liver disease in hemophilia.
Lancet
335
1990
1117
3
Rumi
MG
Colombo
M
Gringeri
A
Mannucci
PM
High prevalence of antibody to hepatitis C virus in multitransfused hemophiliacs with normal transaminase levels.
Ann Intern Med
112
1990
379
4
Mannucci
PM
Colombo
M
Virucidal treatment of clotting factor concentrates.
Lancet
2
1988
782
5
Mannucci
PM
Schimpf
K
Brettler
DB
Ciavarella
N
Colombo
M
Haschke
F
Lechner
K
Lusher
J
Weissbach
G
the International Study Group
Low risk for hepatitis C in hemophiliacs given a high-purity, pasteurized factor VIII concentrate.
Ann Intern Med
113
1990
27
6
Jarvis
LM
Davidson
F
Hanley
JP
Yap
PL
Ludlam
CA
Simmonds
P
Infection with hepatitis G virus among recipients of plasma products.
Lancet
348
1996
1352
7
De Filippi
F
Colombo
M
Rumi
MG
Tradati
F
Gringeri
A
Prati
D
Zanella
A
Mannucci
PM
High rates of hepatitis G virus infection in multitransfused hemophilic patients.
Blood
90
1997
4634
8
Mannucci
PM
Gdovin
S
Gringeri
A
Colombo
M
Mele
A
Schinaia
N
Ciavarella
N
Emerson
SU
Purcell
RH
the Italian Collaborative Group
Transmission of hepatitis A to patients with hemophilia by factor VIII concentrates treated with organic solvent and detergent to inactivate viruses.
Ann Intern Med
120
1994
1
9
Nishizawa
T
Okamoto
H
Konishi
K
Yoshizawa
H
Miyakawa
Y
Mayumi
M
A novel DNA virus (TTV) associated with elevated transaminase levels in posttransfusion hepatitis of unknown etiology.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun
241
1997
92
10
Okamoto
H
Nishizawa
T
Kato
M
Ukita
M
Ikeda
H
Iizuka
H
Miyakawa
Y
Mayumi
M
Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel DNA virus (TTV) associated with posttransfusion hepatitis of unknown etiology.
Hepatol Res
10
1998
1
11
Naoumov
NV
Petrova
EP
Thomas
MG
Williams
R
Presence of a newly described human DNA virus (TTV) in patients with liver disease.
Lancet
352
1998
195
12
Prescott
LE
Simmonds
P
Global distribution of transfusion-transmitted virus.
N Engl J Med
339
1998
776
13
Prati
D
Lin
YH
De Mattei
C
Liu
JK
Farma
E
Ramaswamy
L
Zanella
A
Lee
H
Rebulla
P
Allain
JP
Sirchia
G
Chen
B
A prospective study on TT virus infection in transfusion-dependent patients with beta-thalassemia.
Blood
93
1999
1502
14
Simmonds
P
Davidson
F
Lycett
C
Prescott
LE
MacDonald
DM
Ellender
J
Yap
PL
Ludlam
CA
Haydon
GH
Gillon
J
Jarvis
LM
Detection of a novel DNA virus (TTV) in blood donors and blood products.
Lancet
352
1998
191
15
Sumazaki
R
Yamada-Osaki
M
Kajiwara
Y
Shirahata
A
Matsui
A
Transfusion transmitted virus (letter).
Lancet
352
1998
1308
16
Gerolami
V
Halfon
P
Chambost
H
Thuret
I
Halimi
G
Transfusion transmitted virus (letter).
Lancet
352
1998
1309
17
Fujiwara
T
Iwata
A
Lizuka
H
Tanaka
T
Okamoto
H
Transfusion transmitted virus (letter).
Lancet
352
1998
1310
18
Viazov
S
Ross
RS
Varenholz
C
Lange
R
Holtmann
M
Niel
C
Roggendorf
M
Lack of evidence for an association between TTV infection and severe liver disease.
J Clin Virol
11
1998
183
19
Charlton
M
Adjei
P
Poterucha
J
Zein
N
Moore
B
Therneau
T
Krom
R
Wiesner
R
TT-virus infection in North American blood donors, patients with fulminant hepatic failure, and cryptogenic cirrhosis.
Hepatology
28
1998
839
20
Mannucci
PM
The choice of plasma-derived clotting factor concentrates.
Bailliere's Clin Haematol
9
1996
273
21
Lampertico
P
Rumi
MG
Romeo
R
Craxı̀
A
Soffredini
R
Biassoni
D
Colombo
M
A multicenter randomized controlled trial of recombinant interferon alpha 2b in patients with acute transfusion-associated hepatitis C.
Hepatology
19
1994
19
22
Okamoto
H
Akahane
Y
Ukita
M
Fukuda
M
Tsuda
F
Miyakawa
Y
Mayumi
M
Fecal excretion of a non-enveloped DNA virus (TTV) associated with post-transfusion non A-G hepatitis.
J Med Virol
56
1998
128
23
Shakil
AO
Conry-Cantilena
C
Alter
HJ
Hayashi
P
Kleiner
DE
Tedeschi
V
Krawczynski
K
Conjeevaram
HS
Sallie
R
Di Bisceglie
A
the Hepatitis Study Group
Volunteer blood donors with antibody to hepatitis C virus: Clinical, biochemical, virologic and histologic features.
Ann Intern Med
123
1995
330

Author notes

Address reprint requests to Massimo Colombo, MD, Professor and Chairman, Department of Internal Medicine, Via Pace 9, 20122 Milan, Italy; e-mail: mcolombo@imiucca.csi.unimi.it.

Sign in via your Institution