In states which lead to PGF, EPCs are decreased in number and function associated with increased expression of phospho-p38 and its downstream mediator, phospho-CREB (p-CREB). Atorvastatin, ROS inhibitors, and p38 MAPK inhibitors are able to improve number and function of EPCs through suppression of phospho-p38. NAC, N-acetylcysteine.