Homologies between mammalian and insect immune defense pathways. In mammals (enclosed in dashed curve), TLR and TNF signaling pathways are unified, in that TNF is produced in response to all TLR ligands, and then signals via the TNF receptors to induce cell death and NF-κB activation in other cells. In Drosophila, the Toll pathway and the Imd pathway are separated, each responding independently to microbial stimuli. Molecular homologies are shaded in blue. AMP indicates antimicrobial peptide. Genes, implies the induction of many hundreds of NF-κB dependent genes. Figure is not all encompassing and is meant to emphasize core similarities between the pathways. Illustration made with assistance of Marie Dauenheimer.