Schematic representation of the multiple mechanisms of action of glucocorticoids, as stratified in relation to the length of time of application. (A) Nongenomic effects are mediated via the intracellular receptor, and are evident within minutes of glucocorticoid application. (B) Transrepression seems to be the prevalent effect produced by glucocorticoids when responses are monitored for the first few hours only (few genes are also transactivated in this timeframe [eg, annexin-1, β₂ adrenergic receptors, and protein phosphatase 2]). (C) Transactivation is the more prevalent effect of glucocorticoids when applied for longer time points (> 16 hours). The gene reprogramming induced by this treatment will have a major impact of the proresolving and homeostatic properties of these drugs, which are very often administered to patients for prolonged period of time (days). Illustration by A. Y. Chen.