Table 3.

Effects of caregiver-reported academic, social, or behavioral development on neurocognitive impairment

Neurocognitive impairment >1.5 SD below the normative mean
Score∗ Grade retentionHistory of learning difficultiesAcademic gradesConcerns for learningConcerns for school behaviorConcerns for social developmentDifficulty getting along with peers
Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ 
VCI§  −1.50 0.36 <.001 −0.92 0.34 .015 −0.85 0.37 .037 −1.00 0.36 .009 −0.55 0.43 .28 −0.40 0.60 .6 −0.39 0.78 .69 
PRI§  −1.20 0.31 <.001 −1.20 0.29 <.001 −1.30 0.31 <.001 −0.79 0.29 .012 0.41 0.39 .37 −0.67 0.46 .21 0.09 0.54 .92 
Coding||  −0.83 0.33 .024 −0.79 0.29 .013 −1.10 0.33 .004 −1.20 0.30 <.001 −0.44 0.35 .28 −0.74 0.43 .13 0.03 0.58 .97 
Digit span||  −1.30 0.40 .003 −1.40 0.40 .002 −2.30 0.57 <.001 −1.50 0.43 .002 −0.55 0.45 .28 −0.67 0.54 .28 −0.94 1.00 .44 
Letter-word  −1.60 0.39 <.001 −1.70 0.40 <.001 −1.40 0.45 .004 −2.10 0.42 <.001 −0.61 0.46 .26 −0.07 0.60 .94 0.02 0.68 .97 
Math fluency  −1.40 0.33 <.001 −1.10 0.28 <.001 −0.92 0.30 .005 −1.60 0.30 <.001 −0.71 0.37 .09 −0.98 0.45 .049 0.27 0.50 .67 
≥2 impairments#  −1.80 0.38 <.001 −1.60 0.33 <.001 −1.50 0.35 <.001 −1.30 0.34 <.001 −0.47 0.43 .34 0.33 0.72 .71 −1.20 0.82 .2 
Neurocognitive impairment >1 SD below the normative mean 
Score∗  Grade retention History of learning difficulties Academic grades Concerns for learning Concerns for school behavior Concerns for social development Difficulty getting along with peers 
Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  
VCI§  −1.90 0.32 <.001 −0.86 0.27 .003 −1.10 0.28 <.001 −0.82 0.27 .006 −0.23 0.33 .60 −0.64 0.47 .24 −0.044 0.52 .95 
PRI§  −1.50 0.31 <.001 −0.52 0.23 .040 −0.77 0.24 .003 −0.59 0.23 .021 0.22 0.29 .57 0.046 0.4 .95 0.66 0.45 .20 
Coding||  −1.20 0.29 <.001 −0.44 0.24 .12 −0.76 0.27 .009 −0.71 0.25 .010 −0.23 0.31 .57 −0.58 0.38 .19 0.088 0.48 .91 
Digit span||  −1.10 0.30 <.001 −0.95 0.28 .002 −1.50 0.33 <.001 −1.20 0.29 <.001 −0.11 0.35 .85 −0.75 0.40 .11 −0.31 0.57 .69 
Letter-word  −1.50 0.32 <.001 −1.60 0.29 <.001 −1.90 0.33 <.001 −1.60 0.30 <.001 −0.60 0.36 .16 −0.54 0.43 .30 0.52 0.50 .40 
Math fluency  −1.60 0.37 <.001 −1.30 0.27 <.001 −1.20 0.28 <.001 −1.40 0.29 <.001 −0.52 0.34 .19 −0.76 0.45 .15 0.21 0.48 .77 
≥2 impairments#  −2.40 0.56 <.001 −0.98 0.31 .003 −1.50 0.32 <.001 −0.87 0.31 .009 0.09 0.39 .88 −0.15 0.59 .88 0.03 0.56 .96 
Neurocognitive impairment >1.5 SD below the normative mean
Score∗ Grade retentionHistory of learning difficultiesAcademic gradesConcerns for learningConcerns for school behaviorConcerns for social developmentDifficulty getting along with peers
Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ Estimate† SEq‡ 
VCI§  −1.50 0.36 <.001 −0.92 0.34 .015 −0.85 0.37 .037 −1.00 0.36 .009 −0.55 0.43 .28 −0.40 0.60 .6 −0.39 0.78 .69 
PRI§  −1.20 0.31 <.001 −1.20 0.29 <.001 −1.30 0.31 <.001 −0.79 0.29 .012 0.41 0.39 .37 −0.67 0.46 .21 0.09 0.54 .92 
Coding||  −0.83 0.33 .024 −0.79 0.29 .013 −1.10 0.33 .004 −1.20 0.30 <.001 −0.44 0.35 .28 −0.74 0.43 .13 0.03 0.58 .97 
Digit span||  −1.30 0.40 .003 −1.40 0.40 .002 −2.30 0.57 <.001 −1.50 0.43 .002 −0.55 0.45 .28 −0.67 0.54 .28 −0.94 1.00 .44 
Letter-word  −1.60 0.39 <.001 −1.70 0.40 <.001 −1.40 0.45 .004 −2.10 0.42 <.001 −0.61 0.46 .26 −0.07 0.60 .94 0.02 0.68 .97 
Math fluency  −1.40 0.33 <.001 −1.10 0.28 <.001 −0.92 0.30 .005 −1.60 0.30 <.001 −0.71 0.37 .09 −0.98 0.45 .049 0.27 0.50 .67 
≥2 impairments#  −1.80 0.38 <.001 −1.60 0.33 <.001 −1.50 0.35 <.001 −1.30 0.34 <.001 −0.47 0.43 .34 0.33 0.72 .71 −1.20 0.82 .2 
Neurocognitive impairment >1 SD below the normative mean 
Score∗  Grade retention History of learning difficulties Academic grades Concerns for learning Concerns for school behavior Concerns for social development Difficulty getting along with peers 
Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  Estimate†  SE q‡  
VCI§  −1.90 0.32 <.001 −0.86 0.27 .003 −1.10 0.28 <.001 −0.82 0.27 .006 −0.23 0.33 .60 −0.64 0.47 .24 −0.044 0.52 .95 
PRI§  −1.50 0.31 <.001 −0.52 0.23 .040 −0.77 0.24 .003 −0.59 0.23 .021 0.22 0.29 .57 0.046 0.4 .95 0.66 0.45 .20 
Coding||  −1.20 0.29 <.001 −0.44 0.24 .12 −0.76 0.27 .009 −0.71 0.25 .010 −0.23 0.31 .57 −0.58 0.38 .19 0.088 0.48 .91 
Digit span||  −1.10 0.30 <.001 −0.95 0.28 .002 −1.50 0.33 <.001 −1.20 0.29 <.001 −0.11 0.35 .85 −0.75 0.40 .11 −0.31 0.57 .69 
Letter-word  −1.50 0.32 <.001 −1.60 0.29 <.001 −1.90 0.33 <.001 −1.60 0.30 <.001 −0.60 0.36 .16 −0.54 0.43 .30 0.52 0.50 .40 
Math fluency  −1.60 0.37 <.001 −1.30 0.27 <.001 −1.20 0.28 <.001 −1.40 0.29 <.001 −0.52 0.34 .19 −0.76 0.45 .15 0.21 0.48 .77 
≥2 impairments#  −2.40 0.56 <.001 −0.98 0.31 .003 −1.50 0.32 <.001 −0.87 0.31 .009 0.09 0.39 .88 −0.15 0.59 .88 0.03 0.56 .96 

Bold values are statistically significant at q < 0.05.

SE, standard error.

∗

Scaled scores with mean (SD) of 10 (3): Coding, Digit Span Total; standard scores with a mean (SD) of 100 (15): VCI, PRI, Letter-Word, Math Fluency.

†

Estimates for the effect of caregiver report on neurocognitive performance from logistic regression model: neurocognitive measure = participant age at neurocognitive assessment, sex (ref = female), use of hydroxyurea before neurocognitive evaluation, sickle cell genotype, social vulnerability, and target caregiver signaling question (ie, grade retention, history of learning difficulties, academic grades, concerns for learning, concerns for school behavior, concerns for social development, difficulty getting along with peers).

‡

q values are calculated to correct for multiple corrections to control the false discovery rate across all signaling question variables and all neurocognitive variables.

§

Measured with WASI-II.

||

Measured with WAIS-IV or WISC-IV/V.

Measured with WJ-III/IV.

#

Participants were classified as having significant or mild neurocognitive impairment if they performed >1.5 or >1 SD below the normative data on ≥2 out of 6 neurocognitive measures, respectively.

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