Frequency of caregiver-reported signaling questions and neurocognitive impairment for the total sample and by age
| Signaling question or neurocognitive domain . | Total sample (N = 421) . | School age (n = 192) . | Early adolescence (n = 69) . | Late adolescence (n = 160) . | P value . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) . | N (%) . | N (%) . | N (%) . | ||
| History of grade retention | 79 (20.63) | 26 (14.36) | 8 (13.11) | 45 (31.91) | <.001 |
| History of learning difficulties | 157 (40.36) | 60 (33.15) | 22 (35.48) | 75 (51.37) | .003 |
| Academic grades | .034 | ||||
| As or Bs | 201 (57.93) | 108 (65.06) | 33 (58.93) | 60 (48.00) | |
| Cs | 54 (15.56) | 23 (13.86) | 10 (17.86) | 21 (16.80) | |
| Ds or Fs | 20 (5.76) | 6 (3.61) | 1 (1.79) | 13 (10.40) | |
| Variable | 72 (20.75) | 29 (17.47) | 12 (21.43) | 31 (24.80) | |
| Caregiver concern for learning | 132 (35.68) | 66 (37.08) | 20 (32.79) | 46 (35.11) | .82 |
| Caregiver concern for behavior at school | 70 (18.62) | 40 (22.60) | 8 (12.70) | 22 (16.18) | .15 |
| Caregiver concern for social development | 36 (10.08) | 14 (8.09) | 7 (11.67) | 15 (12.10) | .48 |
| Difficulty getting along with peers | 26 (7.05) | 15 (8.62) | 4 (6.56) | 7 (5.22) | .51 |
| CRS∗ | .0004 | ||||
| 0 | 148 (45.54) | 85 (54.84) | 27 (50.94) | 36 (30.77) | |
| 1 | 79 (24.31) | 33 (21.29) | 15 (28.3) | 31 (26.5) | |
| 2 | 64 (19.69) | 29 (18.71) | 7 (13.21) | 28 (23.93) | |
| 3 | 34 (10.46) | 8 (5.16) | 4 (7.55) | 22 (18.8) | |
| Neurocognitive impairment (>1.5 SD below the normative mean) | |||||
| VCI† | 52 (14.65) | 15 (8.62) | 7 (12.96) | 30 (23.62) | .0013 |
| PRI† | 74 (19.17) | 26 (14.29) | 8 (13.33) | 40 (27.78) | .0041 |
| Coding‡ | 69 (17.08) | 27 (14.92) | 10 (15.38) | 32 (20.25) | .4 |
| Digit span‡ | 41 (10.25) | 10 (5.56) | 8 (12.12) | 23 (14.94) | .016 |
| Letter-word§ | 52 (15.52) | 13 (8.07) | 5 (8.77) | 34 (29.06) | <.001 |
| Math fluency§ | 109 (33.23) | 28 (17.95) | 16 (28.57) | 65 (56.03) | <.001 |
| ≥2 neurocognitive impairments (n = 260)|| | 74 (28.46) | 25 (18.52) | 8 (20) | 41 (48.24) | <.001 |
| Neurocognitive impairment (>1 SD below the normative mean) | |||||
| VCI† | 108 (30.42) | 40 (22.99) | 14 (25.93) | 54 (42.52) | <.001 |
| PRI† | 177 (45.85) | 77 (42.31) | 22 (36.67) | 78 (54.17) | .031 |
| Coding‡ | 119 (29.46) | 47 (25.97) | 18 (27.69) | 54 (34.18) | .24 |
| Digit span‡ | 81 (20.25) | 27 (15) | 15 (22.73) | 39 (25.32) | .056 |
| Letter-word§ | 97 (28.96) | 29 (18.01) | 15 (26.32) | 53 (45.3) | <.001 |
| Math fluency§ | 159 (48.48) | 48 (30.77) | 27 (48.21) | 84 (72.41) | <.001 |
| ≥2 neurocognitive impairments (n = 260)|| | 141 (54.23) | 57 (42.22) | 19 (47.5) | 65 (76.47) | <.001 |
| Signaling question or neurocognitive domain . | Total sample (N = 421) . | School age (n = 192) . | Early adolescence (n = 69) . | Late adolescence (n = 160) . | P value . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) . | N (%) . | N (%) . | N (%) . | ||
| History of grade retention | 79 (20.63) | 26 (14.36) | 8 (13.11) | 45 (31.91) | <.001 |
| History of learning difficulties | 157 (40.36) | 60 (33.15) | 22 (35.48) | 75 (51.37) | .003 |
| Academic grades | .034 | ||||
| As or Bs | 201 (57.93) | 108 (65.06) | 33 (58.93) | 60 (48.00) | |
| Cs | 54 (15.56) | 23 (13.86) | 10 (17.86) | 21 (16.80) | |
| Ds or Fs | 20 (5.76) | 6 (3.61) | 1 (1.79) | 13 (10.40) | |
| Variable | 72 (20.75) | 29 (17.47) | 12 (21.43) | 31 (24.80) | |
| Caregiver concern for learning | 132 (35.68) | 66 (37.08) | 20 (32.79) | 46 (35.11) | .82 |
| Caregiver concern for behavior at school | 70 (18.62) | 40 (22.60) | 8 (12.70) | 22 (16.18) | .15 |
| Caregiver concern for social development | 36 (10.08) | 14 (8.09) | 7 (11.67) | 15 (12.10) | .48 |
| Difficulty getting along with peers | 26 (7.05) | 15 (8.62) | 4 (6.56) | 7 (5.22) | .51 |
| CRS∗ | .0004 | ||||
| 0 | 148 (45.54) | 85 (54.84) | 27 (50.94) | 36 (30.77) | |
| 1 | 79 (24.31) | 33 (21.29) | 15 (28.3) | 31 (26.5) | |
| 2 | 64 (19.69) | 29 (18.71) | 7 (13.21) | 28 (23.93) | |
| 3 | 34 (10.46) | 8 (5.16) | 4 (7.55) | 22 (18.8) | |
| Neurocognitive impairment (>1.5 SD below the normative mean) | |||||
| VCI† | 52 (14.65) | 15 (8.62) | 7 (12.96) | 30 (23.62) | .0013 |
| PRI† | 74 (19.17) | 26 (14.29) | 8 (13.33) | 40 (27.78) | .0041 |
| Coding‡ | 69 (17.08) | 27 (14.92) | 10 (15.38) | 32 (20.25) | .4 |
| Digit span‡ | 41 (10.25) | 10 (5.56) | 8 (12.12) | 23 (14.94) | .016 |
| Letter-word§ | 52 (15.52) | 13 (8.07) | 5 (8.77) | 34 (29.06) | <.001 |
| Math fluency§ | 109 (33.23) | 28 (17.95) | 16 (28.57) | 65 (56.03) | <.001 |
| ≥2 neurocognitive impairments (n = 260)|| | 74 (28.46) | 25 (18.52) | 8 (20) | 41 (48.24) | <.001 |
| Neurocognitive impairment (>1 SD below the normative mean) | |||||
| VCI† | 108 (30.42) | 40 (22.99) | 14 (25.93) | 54 (42.52) | <.001 |
| PRI† | 177 (45.85) | 77 (42.31) | 22 (36.67) | 78 (54.17) | .031 |
| Coding‡ | 119 (29.46) | 47 (25.97) | 18 (27.69) | 54 (34.18) | .24 |
| Digit span‡ | 81 (20.25) | 27 (15) | 15 (22.73) | 39 (25.32) | .056 |
| Letter-word§ | 97 (28.96) | 29 (18.01) | 15 (26.32) | 53 (45.3) | <.001 |
| Math fluency§ | 159 (48.48) | 48 (30.77) | 27 (48.21) | 84 (72.41) | <.001 |
| ≥2 neurocognitive impairments (n = 260)|| | 141 (54.23) | 57 (42.22) | 19 (47.5) | 65 (76.47) | <.001 |
P values are based on χ2 or Fisher exact tests.
PRI, perceptual reasoning index; VCI, verbal comprehension index.
CRS is defined as the summation of the number of positive results for history of grade retention, history of learning difficulties, or poor grades (Cs, Ds, Fs, variable). The CRS ranges from 0 to 3, with a higher score indicating a higher number of positive results and greater risk.
Measured with Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, Second Edition (WASI-II).
Measured with Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth or Fifth Editions (WISC-IV/V).
Measured with Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, Third or Fourth Editions (WJ-III/IV).
Participants were classified as having significant or mild neurocognitive impairment if they performed >1.5 or >1 SD below the normative data on ≥2 out of 6 neurocognitive measures, respectively.